Technology Tales

Adventures & experiences in contemporary technology

Using a BASH command to count the files in a directory

12th March 2024

As part of my backup workflow, I maintain a machine running OpenMediaVault that I only power up when backups are to be performed. Typically, this often happens when I have new photography images to load, and I have a NAS that acts as an online backup system. The OpenMediaVault machine is a near-offline counterpart to the NAS for added safety.

Recently, I needed to check on the number of image files in a directory from an SSH session because of a need to create a new repository for 2024. Some files from this year had ended up in the 2023 one, and I needed to be sure that nothing from last year ended in the 2024 folder, or vice versa. Getting a file count from a trusted source was a quick way of doing exactly this.

Due to clumsiness with the NAS, I had to do this using the OpenMediaVault machine. While I could go mounting drives on an interim basis, it was quicker to work from a BASH session. The trick was to use the wc command for counting the lines output by an invocation of the ls command. An example follows:

ls -l | wc -l

The -l (as in l for Lima) switch forces wc to count lines, while the counterpart (same letter) for ls forces it to list the contents in long form, one item per line. Thus, counting the number of lines gets you the count of the number of files. The call to the ls command can be customised to add other things life the number of dot files, but the above was enough for my purposes. When the files in both 2023 directories matched, I was satisfied that all was in order.

AttributeError: module ‘PIL’ has no attribute ‘Image’

11th March 2024

One of my websites has an online photo gallery. This has been a long-term activity that has taken several forms over the years. Once HTML and JavaScript based, it then was powered by Perl before PHP and MySQL came along to take things from there.

While that remains how it works, the publishing side of things has used its own selection of mechanisms over the same time span. Perl and XML were the backbone until Python and Markdown took over. There was a time when ImageMagick and GraphicsMagick handled image processing, but Python now does that as well.

That was when the error message gracing the title of this post came to my notice. Everything was working well when executed in Spyder, but the message appears when I tried running things using Python on the command line. PIL is the abbreviated name for the Python 3 pillow package; there was one called PIL in the Python 2 days.

For me, pillow loads, resizes and creates new images, which is handy for adding borders and copyright/source information to each image as well as creating thumbnails. All this happens in memory and that makes everything go quickly, much faster than disk-based tools like ImageMagick and GraphicsMagick.

Of course, nothing is going to happen if the package cannot be loaded, and that is what the error message is about. Linux is what I mainly use, so that is the context for this scenario. What I was doing was something like the following in the Python script:

import PIL

Then, I referred to PIL.Image when I needed it, and this could not be found when the script was run from the command line (BASH). The solution was to add something like the following:

from PIL import Image

That sorted it, and I must have run into trouble with PIL.ImageFilter too, since I now load it in the same manner. In both cases, I could just refer to Image or ImageFilter as I required and without the dot syntax. However, you need to make sure that there is no clash with anything in another loaded Python package when doing this.

Upgrading from OpenMediaVault 6.x to OpenMediaVault 7.x

8th March 2024

Having an older PC to upgrade, I decided to install OpenMediaVault on there a few years ago after adding in 6 TB and 4 TB hard drives for storage, a Gigabit network card to speed up backups and a new BeQuiet! power supply to make it quieter. It has been working smoothly since then, and the release of OpenMediaVault 6.x had me wondering how to move to it.

Usefully, I enabled an SSH service for remote logins and set up an account for anything that I needed to do. This includes upgrades, taking backups of what is on my NAS drives, and even shutting down the machine when I am done with what I need to do with it.

Using an SSH session, the first step was to switch to the administrator account and issue the following command to ensure that my OpenMediaVault 6.x installation was as up-to-date as it could be:

omv-update

Once that had completed what it needed to do, the next step was to do the upgrade itself with the following command:

omv-release-upgrade

With that complete, it was time to reboot the system, and I fired up the web administration interface and spotted a kernel update that I applied. Again, the system was restarted, and further updates were noticed and these were applied, again through the web interface. The whole thing is based on Debian 12.x, but I am not complaining since it quietly does exactly what I need of it. There was one slight glitch when doing an update after the changeover, and that was quickly sorted.

Upgrading Julia packages

23rd January 2024

Whenever a new version of Julia is released, I have certain actions to perform. With Julia 1.10, installing and updating it has become more automated thanks to shell scripting or the use of WINGET, depending on your operating system. Because my environment predates this, I found that the manual route still works best for me, and I will continue to do that.

Returning to what needs doing after an update, this includes updating Julia packages. In the REPL, this involves dropping to the PKG subshell using the “]” key if you want to avoid using longer commands or filling your history with what is less important for everyday usage.

Previously, I often ran code to find a package was missing after updating Julia, so the add command was needed to reinstate it. That may raise its head again, but there also is the up command for upgrading all packages that were installed. This could be a time saver when only a single command is needed for all packages and not one command for each package as otherwise might be the case.

Adding titles and footnotes to Excel files created using SAS

14th August 2023

Using the Excel and ExcelXP destinations in the Output Delivery System (ODS), SAS can generate reports as XLSX workbooks with one or more worksheets. Recently, I was updating a SAS Macro that created one of these and noticed that there were no footnotes. The fix was a simple: add to the options specified on the initial ODS Excel statement.

ods excel file="&outdir./&file_name..xlsx" options(embedded_titles="yes" embedded_footnotes="yes");

Notice in the code above that there are EMBEDDED_TITLES and EMBEDDED_FOOTNOTES options. Without both of these being set to YES, no titles or footnotes will appear in a given worksheet even if they have been specified in a program using TITLE or FOOTNOTE statements. In my case, it was the EMBEDDED_FOOTNOTES option that was missing, so adding that set things to rights.

The thing applies to the ExcelXP tag set as you will find from a code sample that SAS has shared on their website. That was what led me to the solution to what was happening in the Excel ODS destination in my case.

Using associative arrays in scripting for BASH version 4 and above

29th April 2023

Associated arrays get called different names in different computing languages: dictionaries, hash tables and so on. What is held in common is that they essentially are lists of key value pairs. In the case of BASH, you need at least version 4 to make use of this facility. In Linux Mint, I get 5.1.16, but macOS users apparently are still on BASH 3, so this post may not help them.

To declare an associative array in a later version of BASH, the following command gets issued:

declare -A hashtable

The code to add a key value pair then takes the following form:

hashtable[key1]=value1

Several values can be added to an empty array like this:

hashtable=( ["key1"]="value1" ["key2"]="value2" )

Declaration and instantiation of an associative can be done in the same line as follows:

declare -A hashtable=( ["key1"]="value1 ["key2"]="value2")

Handily, it is possible to loop through the entries in an associative array. It is possible to do this for keys and for values, once you expand out the appropriate list. The following expands a list of values:

"${hashtable[@]}"

Expanding a list of values needs something like this:

"${!hashtable[@]}"

Looping through a list of values needs something like the following:

for val in "${hashtable[@]}"; do echo "$val"; done;

The above has been placed on a single line with semicolon delimiters for brevity, but this can be put on several lines with no semicolons for added clarity as long as correct indentation is followed. It is also possible to similarly loop through a list of keys:

for key in "${!hashtable[@]}"; do echo "key: $key, value ${hashtable[$key]}"; done;

For the example associative array declared earlier, the last line produces this output, resolving the value using the supplied key:

key: key2, value value2
key: key1, value value1

All of this found a use in a script that I created for adding new Markdown files to a Hugo instance because there was more than one shortcode that I wished to apply due to my having more than one content directory in use.

String replacement in BASH scripting

28th April 2023

During creation of new posts for a Hugo deployed website, I found myself using the same directories again and again. Since I invariably ended up making typing mistakes when I did so, I fancied the idea of using shortcodes instead.

Because I wanted to turn the shortcode into the actual directory name, I chose the use of text replacement in BASH scripting. Thankfully, this is simple and avoids the use of regular expressions, which can bring their own problems. The essential syntax is as follows:

variable="${variable/search text/replacement}"

For the variable, the search text is substituted with the replacement very easily. It is even possible to include the search and replacement text in variables. In the example below, this is achieved using variables called original and replacement.

variable="${variable/$original/$replacement}"

Doing this got me my translatable shortcodes and converted them into actual directory names for the hugo command to process. There may be other uses yet.

Another way to supply the terminal output of one BASH command to another

26th April 2023

My usual way for sending the output of one command to another is to be place one command after another, separated by the pipe (|) operator and adjusting the second command as needed. However, I recently found that this approach does not work well for docker pull commands and I then uncovered another option.

That is to enclose the input command in $( ) within the output command. Within the parentheses, any kind of command can be declared and includes anything with piping as part of it. As long as text is being printed to the terminal, it can be fed to the second command and used as required. Thus, you can have something like the following:

docker pull $([command outputting name of image to download])

This approach has helped with other kinds of automation of docker image and container use and deployment because it is so general. There may be other uses found for the approach yet.

Changing the number of lines produced by the tail command in a Linux or UNIX session

25th April 2023

Since I often use the tail command to look at the end of a log file and occasionally in combination with the watch command for constant updates, I got to wondering if the number of lines issued by the tail command could be changed. That is a simple thing to do with the -n switch. All you need is something like the following:

tail -n 20 logfile.log

Here the value of 20 is the number of lines produced when it would be 10 by default, and logfile.log gets replaced by the path and name of what you are examining. One thing to watch is that your terminal emulator can show all the lines being displayed. If you find that you are not seeing all the lines that you expect, then that might be the cause.

While you could find this by looking through the documentation, things do not always register with you during dry reading of something laden with lists of parameters or switches. That is an affliction with tools that do a lot and/or allow a lot of customisation.

Avoiding permissions, times or ownership failure messages when using rsync

22nd April 2023

The rsync command is one that I use heavily for doing backups and web publishing. The latter means that it is part of how I update websites built using Hugo because new and/or updated files need uploading. The command also sees usage when uploading files onto other websites as well. During one of these operations, and I am unsure now as to which type is relevant, I encountered errors about being unable to set permissions.

The cause was the encompassing -a option. This is a shorthand for -rltpgoD, and the individual options perform the following:

-r: recursive transfer, copying all contents within a directory hierarchy

-l: symbolic links copied as symbolic links

-t: preserve times

-p: preserve permissions

-g: preserve groups

-o: preserve owners

-D: preserve device and special files

The solution is to some of the options if they are inappropriate. The minimum is to omit the option for permissions preservation, but others may not apply between different servers either, especially when operating systems differ. Removing the options for preserving permissions, groups and owners results in something like this:

rsync -rltD [rest of command]

While it can be good to have a more powerful command with the setting of a single option, it can mean trying to do too much. Another way to avoid permissions and similar errors is to have consistency between source and destination files systems, but that is not always possible.

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